The Social Anatomy of Homicide: Relationships, Situations, and Legal Categories in Indonesia
Article Sidebar
Main Article Content
Abstract
Homicide is often treated as a reliable measure of serious violence, but aggregate counts reveal little about the social form of killing. This study examined how victim-offender relationships and immediate situations shaped the interpretation of homicide and how those dimensions related to legal classification in Indonesia. A structured integrative review and socio-legal documentary analysis were conducted using peer-reviewed journal articles published from 2020 to 2026, official BPS crime statistics, and Law No. 1 of 2023 on the Criminal Code. The review found that intimate partner, family, acquaintance, stranger, and criminal-context homicides represented different social events. Relational history influenced access, exposure, conflict, and control, while arguments, accompanying offences, weapon availability, separation, and location affected lethal escalation. Indonesian criminal law classified killings through legally relevant elements such as intentional killing, specified kinship, offence-connected killing, and premeditation, but these categories did not reproduce the distinctions used in homicide research. Indonesian homicide research would benefit from recording relationship, situation, and legal outcome as separate fields so that social information is not lost in aggregate counts or final legal classifications.
Article Details
Section
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
References
Abreu Minero, V., & Nivette, A. (2026). Changing patterns of domestic homicide during lockdown: Interrupted time-series analysis in England and Wales. Homicide Studies, 30(1), 80–103. https://doi.org/10.1177/10887679231190032
Beatty, J., & Butler, H. D. (2025). The realities of stranger danger across violent crimes. Victims & Offenders, 20(3), 532–550. https://doi.org/10.1080/15564886.2024.2347634
Buil-Gil, D., Pina-Sánchez, J., & Aebi, M. F. (2026). The effect of counting rules on cross-national comparisons of homicide. Social Indicators Research, 181, Article 44. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-025-03802-8
Cavlak, M., Ar Mutlu, N. D., Balseven Odabaşı, A., & Paksoy Erbaydar, N. (2023). Analyzing two decades of intimate partner femicide-suicides in Türkiye. Journal of Forensic and Legal Medicine, 94, 102485. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jflm.2023.102485
Cho, S., Lee, Y. H., & Harper, S. B. (2021). Testing the systemic model of social disorganization theory in South Korean neighborhoods: A latent class growth analysis approach to specifying pathways to homicide. Homicide Studies, 25(2), 139–163. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088767920941564
Dunaiski, M., Abdelgelil, C., Filip, A.-M., Ivanova, N., Rausis, D., Yee, S., & Me, A. (2024). Global and regional estimates of female intimate partner and family-related homicide. Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, 40(2), 352–363. https://doi.org/10.1177/10439862241245821
Fridel, E. E. (2025). Revisiting the structural (in)variances of homicide: Examining the differential effects of context across homicide types. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 62(1), 50–89. https://doi.org/10.1177/00224278231213026
Fridel, E. E., & Knapp, K. G. (2025). Moving beyond self-defense: Reevaluating the (gendered) motivations for female homicide offending across the victim-offender relationship. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 62(6), 900–931. https://doi.org/10.1177/00224278251362198
Garcia-Vergara, E., Almeda, N., Martín Ríos, B., Becerra-Alonso, D., & Fernández-Navarro, F. (2022). A comprehensive analysis of factors associated with intimate partner femicide: A systematic review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(12), 7336. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19127336
Graham, L. M., Macy, R. J., Rizo, C. F., & Martin, S. L. (2022). Explanatory theories of intimate partner homicide perpetration: A systematic review. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 23(2), 408–427. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838020953800
Hiltz, N., Bland, M., & Barnes, G. C. (2020). Victim-offender overlap in violent crime: Targeting crime harm in a Canadian suburb. Cambridge Journal of Evidence-Based Policing, 4, 114–124. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41887-020-00056-x
Johnson, L. (2024). Jealousy as a correlate of intimate partner homicide-suicide versus homicide-only cases: National Violent Death Reporting System, 2016–2020. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior, 54(4), 663–672. https://doi.org/10.1111/sltb.13076
Kadir, Z. K. (2024). Dari Dualisme ke Monisme: Transformasi Konsep Mens Rea dalam Kodifikasi KUHP di Negara-Negara Poskolonial. Jurnal Litigasi Amsir, (Special Issue), 142–155.
Kadir, Z. K. (2025). Membongkar Relasi Tersembunyi: Pola Hubungan Pelaku Dan Korban Kekerasan Seksual Dalam Perspektif Kriminologi. Jurnal Padamu Negeri, 2(2), 20–29.
Kadir, Z. K. (2026a). Beyond Firearms: Mapping Global Patterns of Non-Firearm Homicide in Comparative Criminological Perspective. Punggawa Global Research: Jurnal Multidisiplin, 1(2), 1–10.
Kadir, Z. K. (2026b). Living Law sebagai Instrumen Kebijakan Kriminal dalam KUHP Baru Indonesia. JOURNAL SAINS STUDENT RESEARCH, 4(1), 411–420.
Kadir, Z. K. (2026c). Mapping Recorded Homicide in Indonesia: An Ecological Criminological Analysis Using BPS Data. Punggawa Law Review, 1(2), 9–18.
Kadir, Z. K. (2026d). Preventing Murder Without Expanding Punishment: Rethinking Homicide Policy Beyond Deterrence. Punggawa Law Review, 1(3), 49–58. https://doi.org/10.67707/plr.v1i3.40
Kadir, Z. K. (2026e). Rural Criminology and the Cultural Authorization of Homicide: How Lethal Violence Becomes Socially Permissible. Punggawa Social Inquiry: Journal of Crime, Culture, and Social Dynamics, 1(1), 1–10.
Kadir, Z. K. (2026f). Siri’Killing dalam Masyarakat Bugis-Makassar: Konstruksi, Pola Pembunuhan, dan Respons Hukum Pidana. MUTIARA: Jurnal Ilmiah Multidisiplin Indonesia, 4(2), 158–172.
Kadir, Z. K., & Mappaselleng, N. F. (2025). Reformasi Konsep Heat of Passion: Menuju Pembatasan Provokasi dalam Mengurangi Pertanggungjawaban Pidana Pembunuhan. Justitiable-Jurnal Hukum, 8(1), 119–136. https://doi.org/10.56071/justitiable.v8i1.1293
Kennedy, B., Ibrahim, J. E., Koppel, S., & Bugeja, L. (2025). Older adult homicide in Australia, 2001–2018: A retrospective cross-sectional study of consecutive homicides. Journal of Family Violence. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-025-00981-3
Kivivuori, J., Liem, M., & Markwalder, N. (2024). European Homicide Monitor: Research, new developments, and future. Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, 40(3), 431–445. https://doi.org/10.1177/10439862241253386
Krüsselmann, K., Aarten, P., Granath, S., Kivivuori, J., Markwalder, N., Suonpää, K., Thomsen, A. H., Walser, S., & Liem, M. (2023). Firearm homicides in Europe: A comparison with non-firearm homicides in five European countries. Global Crime, 24(2), 145–167. https://doi.org/10.1080/17440572.2023.2211513
Liem, M., Aarten, P., Granath, S., Kivivuori, J., Langlade, A., Larchet, K., Markwalder, N., Suonpää, K., Thomsen, A. H., & Walser, S. (2024). Patterns of female homicide victimization in Western Europe. International Criminology, 4, 177–190. https://doi.org/10.1007/s43576-024-00127-3
Liu, F. (2025). Rethinking homicide typologies: A comparative analysis of behavioural patterns and weapon use in Chinese homicides. International Journal of Comparative and Applied Criminal Justice. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1080/01924036.2025.2577428
Macucha, C. M., & Taunde, S. A. (2020). Domestic homicide in Mozambique. Forensic Science International: Synergy, 2, 157–161. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fsisyn.2020.03.006
Matias, A., Gonçalves, M., Soeiro, C., & Matos, M. (2021). Intimate partner homicide in Portugal: What are the (as)symmetries between men and women? European Journal on Criminal Policy and Research, 27(4), 471–494. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10610-020-09469-w
Overstreet, S. M., McNeeley, S., & Lapsey, D. S., Jr. (2021). Can victim, offender, and situational characteristics differentiate between lethal and non-lethal incidents of intimate partner violence occurring among adults? Homicide Studies, 25(3), 220–238. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088767920959402
Pineda, D., Rico-Bordera, P., Galán, M., Piqueras, J. A., & González-Álvarez, J. L. (2023). Women victims of intimate partner violence and intimate partner homicide: A typology based on victimization variables. Psychosocial Intervention, 32(1), 43–53. https://doi.org/10.5093/pi2023a3
Ploeg, O. H. J., Mehigan, J., Grace, R. C., & Cording, J. R. (2026). Murder or manslaughter: The role of premeditation and associated behavioural characteristics. Psychology, Crime & Law, 32(6), 857–880. https://doi.org/10.1080/1068316X.2024.2405678
Rai, A., Villarreal-Otálora, T., Blackburn, J., & Choi, Y. J. (2020). Correlates of intimate partner stalking precipitated homicides in the United States. Journal of Family Violence, 35, 705–716. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-020-00137-5
Sheed, A., Brandt, C., & McEwan, T. E. (2024). The relationship between stalking, homicide, and coercive control in an Australian population. Homicide Studies. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1177/10887679241268032
Smith, E. J., Bailey, B. A., & Cascio, M. A. (2024). Sexual coercion, intimate partner violence, and homicide: A scoping literature review. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 25(1), 341–353. https://doi.org/10.1177/15248380221150474
Stansfield, R., Semenza, D., & Steidley, T. (2021). Public guns, private violence: The association of city-level firearm availability and intimate partner homicide in the United States. Preventive Medicine, 148, 106599. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ypmed.2021.106599
Suonpää, K., Kivivuori, J., Aarten, P., Ahven, A., Granath, S., Markwalder, N., Skott, S., Thomsen, A. H., Walser, S., & Liem, M. (2024). Homicide drop in seven European countries: General or specific across countries and crime types? European Journal of Criminology, 21(1), 3–30. https://doi.org/10.1177/14773708221103799
Tripi, D., Ghamlouch, A., Del Duca, F., Racciatti, M., Frati, P., Ferracuti, S., & Maiese, A. (2026). Intimate partner femicide, understanding perpetrator behaviour: A cross-cultural analytical review of weapon choice, injury patterns, and cultural-criminological insights. International Journal of Legal Medicine. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00414-026-03843-9
Truong, M., Yeganeh, L., Cartwright, A., Ward, E., Ibrahim, J., Cuschieri, D., Dawson, M., & Bugeja, L. (2023). Domestic/family homicide: A systematic review of empirical evidence. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 24(3), 1908–1928. https://doi.org/10.1177/15248380221082084
van Breen, J. A., Devarakonda, S. K., & Liem, M. (2023). Can homicide serve as an indicator of non-lethal crime? A systematic literature review. International Criminology, 3, 99–115. https://doi.org/10.1007/s43576-023-00086-1
van Breen, J., Rabolini, A., & Liem, M. (2024). Old habits die hard: Assessing the validity of using homicide as an indicator of other violent crimes. European Journal of Criminology, 21(3), 452–466. https://doi.org/10.1177/14773708231211170
Vatnar, S. K. B., Friestad, C., & Bjørkly, S. (2022). Intimate partner homicides in Norway 1990–2020: An analysis of incidence and characteristics. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 37(23–24), NP21599–NP21625. https://doi.org/10.1177/08862605211063508
Vignola-Lévesque, C., & Léveillée, S. (2022). Intimate partner violence and intimate partner homicide: Development of a typology based on psychosocial characteristics. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 37(17–18), NP15874–NP15898. https://doi.org/10.1177/08862605211021989
Walz, C., Eifert, S., Görg, J., Schwarz, C.-S., Steffan, C., Brettel, H., & Germerott, T. (2025). Gender differences in homicides: A comparative analysis of 106 fatalities in forensic autopsy data. Forensic Science, Medicine and Pathology, 21, 193–202. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12024-024-00847-y
Zimmerman, G. M., Fridel, E. E., & Gerdes, M. (2021). Examining the racial dynamic of the victim-offender dyad in homicide-suicide: Does intraracial homicide encourage perpetrator suicide? Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 58(4), 420–466. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022427820979620
Badan Pusat Statistik. (2024a). Number of homicide cases in the previous year [Statistical table]. BPS-Statistics Indonesia.
Badan Pusat Statistik. (2024b). Crime statistics 2024. BPS-Statistics Indonesia.
Republic of Indonesia. (2023). Law of the Republic of Indonesia Number 1 of 2023 concerning the Criminal Code.